THE SPREAD OF THE LUTHERAN REFORMATION IN GERMANY
The establishment of Lutheranism
Although he was a public outlaw, Luther was concealed by Frederick of Saxony in Wartburg castle until 1522. He was to use this time to begin a translation of the Bible into German, a task which lasted until 1534. During his lifetime this translation went through 300 editions. Both then and later it played an important role in the literary growth of the German language and in the national and religious development of German-speaking people.
During this critical period the strength of the elector of Saxony was fundamental to the successful establishment of Lutheranism as an independent church. With Frederick’s protection it was impossible for imperial action to be taken against Luther or his supporters in Saxony. As a result, Lutheran congregations began to appear throughout the electorate.
Developments taking place within these congregations were not always to Luther’s liking. In Wittenberg itself, under the leadership of Luther’s former colleague, Andrew Carlstadt, radical reforms were introduced. The Mass and clerical celibacy were denounced, and throughout the town churches were desecrated, altars overthrown, and statues and paintings destroyed. Religious fanaticism spread, especially after the appearance of the three “prophets” of Zwickau, anabaptists claiming divine inspiration, who tried to introduce social as well as religious reforms in the town.
There was a very real danger that reform would get out of control, and, at the request of the town council, Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. He lived there for the rest of his life, refining his doctrine and creating for his reform movement a church of its own.
In the defining and developing of his beliefs, Luther drew heavily not only on the Bible but also on the writings of Augustine and the other early church fathers. He consciously rejected the decisions of popes and councils and the rulings of canon law. He also dismissed the whole scholastic approach to religion. He saw Aquinas’s theology as providing the basis for developments within the church such as the belief in papal infallibility, and saw Thomism as irreconcilable with the Gospel. Similarly, because of the nominalists’ belief in the importance of good works, he also rejected much of nominalism.
Despite his rejection of so much of medieval Catholicism, however, Luther remained deeply influenced by the traditions of the medieval Catholic world. Realizing that without some form of uniformity, order could not be maintained, he put an end to the religious chaos developing in Wittenberg. The changes he allowed were, on the whole, conservative. Monasteries were closed and clerical marriages were allowed in the town, but in general he tried to replace Catholic institutions and services with Lutheran. The new reformed services were very similar to the old: altars, statues, paintings and vestments were retained.
A number of significant changes were introduced: services were in German, instead of in Latin, and preaching and congregational participation were encouraged. In the Eucharist the congregation received both the bread and the wine. The doctrine of transubstantiation was rejected and replaced by that of consubstantiation.
The religion established by Luther was more secular than Catholicism. It emphasized the importance of life on earth and the need for man to fulfill his worldly responsibilities. This was a major reason behind the rejection of monasticism and also lay at the heart of Luther’s decision to marry an ex-nun, Catherine von Bora. The closing of the monasteries and the secularization of religion created problems of providing for the poor and of education. As a result, a new parish organization had to be introduced. Luther rejected the role of the bishop as the seat of authority in a diocese and insisted on the scriptural equality of bishops and priests. With his belief in the priesthood of all believers, there was no place in Lutheranism for a sacerdotal, concept of priesthood, and the medieval priest was thus transformed into a minister: an officeholder to minister to the people and to preach and teach the word of God.
Although Luther believed in the priesthood of all believers, he was wary of placing control of the church in the hands of the congregations. The developments in Wittenberg during 1521 and the growth of anabaptism and sectarianism16 made him realize the need for some sort of authority over the church. In Wittenberg he placed this authority in the hands of the civic authority and insisted that it was divinely ordained to maintain order and to reform and govern the church. It was also its duty to care for the poor and the sick and to provide education. Thus in Wittenberg a Lutheran church organization was created under the jurisdiction of the civic authorities who performed the functions previously carried out by the bishop and monasteries and who were responsible for the appointment of preachers and ministers.
The church in Wittenberg was firmly controlled by the bourgeoisie as a result of this development. With this example of bourgeois control before them, the patricians and merchants in the imperial free cities hastened to throw off their allegiance to Rome and to establish Lutheran churches within their borders. Lutheranism offered far too many political and economic advantages for it to be ignored.
If Luther believed in the right of civic authorities to govern the church in the cities and towns, he was even more aware of the Augustinian role of the prince as the protector and governor of the church. He saw princely authority as essential to the maintenance of order and the prevention of chaos and anarchy. Although he frequently criticized rulers for their faults, he consistently supported their rule and saw rebellion against them as rebellion against God who had given them their authority.
Although Luther’s acceptance of the authority of the ruler was sincere, it did reflect his bourgeois education. He was always opposed to any form of civil disobedience and would also have realized that if his reformation was to succeed, it would need the support of the governing classes.
This realization saw Luther consciously identifying his movement with the interests of the rulers. Although his main concern was personal salvation, and although the Reformation remained primarily a religious revival, he made it clear that there were political advantages to be gained from following his lead. By adopting reform, a prince could stop the flow of money to Rome, strip the church of its wealth and, by bringing the church under his direct control, increase his hold over his subjects.
16 For a discussion of anabaptism,
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