From references to baptism in Paul’s letters it is apparent that he assumes that all believers in Christ have been baptized. A single example will suffice to show this. Paul’s exposition of baptism in Romans 6 commences by citing an objection to his teaching of justification by faith apart from the works of the Law: “On that basis,” says the objector, “why not sin more to give more room for God’s justifying grace?” Paul answers by appealing to the meaning of baptism: “How can people like us who died to sin go on living in it?” He continues, “All of us who were baptized to Christ Jesus were baptized to his death,” and he concludes, “so you also must consider yourselves dead to sin and alive to God in Christ Jesus.” Self-evidently, “people like us who died to sin,” “all of us who were baptized to Christ Jesus,” and “you also must consider yourselves dead to sin,” include Paul and all his readers, otherwise his argument against the allegedly antinomian effect of the doctrine of justification by faith falls to the ground. Similar examples of the assumption that all Christians are baptized are to be seen in Galatians 3:26–28, Colossians 2:12, 1 Corinthians 12:13 and the exposition of baptismal ethics in Colossians 2:20–3:15.
Since Paul himself had received baptism, and had reason to believe that all other Christians were baptized, it is clear that the rite existed prior to his conversion. (The conversion of Paul is commonly dated four years after the death of Jesus.) Since baptism existed prior to Paul’s conversion, it is reasonable to view it as coexistent with the inception of the church. That conclusion concurs with the NT evidence as to the baptizing ministry of John the Baptist (Mk 1:4–8), of Jesus (see Jn 3:25–26, 4:1–3), and of the apostles from the day of Pentecost on (Acts 2:37–41), and the missionary commission of the risen Lord, recorded in Matthew 28:19.
1. The Language and Actions of Baptism
2. Baptism and Christ
3. Baptism and the Spirit
4. Baptism and the Church
5. Baptism and Christian Ethics
6. Baptism and the Kingdom of God
1. The Language and Actions of Baptism.
1.1. Baptism “in the Name of Jesus.” In Paul’s letters, as in the book of Acts, baptism is typically represented as baptism “in the name” of Jesus. This is reflected in a significant manner in Paul’s handling of the divisions in the Corinthian church. He cites its members as saying, “I belong to Paul,” “I belong to Apollos,” “I belong to Cephas (= Peter),” “I belong to Christ” (1 Cor 1:12). Paul, with some indignation, asks, “Has Christ been apportioned to any single group among you? Was Paul crucified for you? Or were you baptized in the name of Paul?” This final question echoes the language of baptism in the name of Jesus; its use in the context suggests that its normal usage is to make a person a follower of Jesus, even to belong to him, and somehow to be involved in his crucifixion and enjoy a special relation to him.
There has been much discussion as to whether the phrase “in the name of” reflects a Greek or Hebrew (and Aramaic) idiom, for it is found in all three languages. W. Heitmüller showed that while the expression eis to onoma (“in the name”) did not appear in Greek classical literature, it was very common in everyday documents with the meaning of “to the account of,” alike in banking and commercial sales. He cited with approval A. Deissmann’s definition of “in the name of [someone]” as denoting “the setting up of the relation of belonging.” Heitmüller added, “Our word ‘for,’ generally speaking, would rightly reproduce the meaning” (Heitmüller, 105). In using this expression, the name of the person to whom the possession is “made over” naturally follows. According to Heitmüller, then, baptism in the name of Jesus signifies the setting up of the relation of belonging to Jesus.
This explanation, however, is denied by some in favor of a Hebrew origin of the phrase. In Jewish literature, including the OT, an equivalent of the Greek expression is frequently met, namely lešēm (le = “to,” šēm = “name”). The term has a very elastic sense. Basically it means “with respect to,” but the context determines it precise connotation. P. Billerbeck gave three illustrations of its use in his discussion of baptism in Matthew 28:19. (1) When pagans were bought by Jews as slaves they were baptized “in the name of slavery,” that is, with a view to becoming slaves; when they were set free they were baptized “in the name of freedom,” that is, for freedom. (2) An offering is slaughtered in the name of five things: in the name of the offering (i.e., with respect to its intention, whether it be a burnt or sin or peace offering, etc); in the name of God (for his sake and glory); in the name of the altar fires (that they be properly kindled); in the name of the sweet savor (for the delight it gives to God); and in the name of the good pleasure of God (in obedience to his will). (3) An Israelite can circumcise a Samaritan, but not a Samaritan an Israelite, because the Samaritans circumcise “in the name of Mount Gerizim,” that is, with the obligation of worshiping the God of the Samaritans who is worshiped there (Str-B, 1054–55). In light of such evidence Billerbeck affirmed: “Baptism grounds a relation between the triune God and the baptized, which the latter has to affirm and express through his confession to the God in whose name he is baptized.”
It is evident, therefore, that the Greek and Hebrew usages of “in the name” are remarkably similar in meaning, especially when applied to baptism, and they would be similarly interpreted in Greek-speaking and Hebrew-speaking circles, despite the greater elasticity of meaning in the Hebrew language.
Sometimes one finds in Paul a shorter expression, baptism eis Christon, which can be rendered either as “into Christ” or “to Christ,” and is possibly a conscious abbreviation of the full phrase “in the name of Christ” (see Rom 6:3–4; Gal 3:27). Significantly, both the Greek preposition eis and the Hebrew prefix le can have the meaning “with respect to,” and also a final sense or dative of interest, “for” (BAGD, 229; BDB, 514–15). In such cases the context will help to determine its intention.
An important element of interpretation arises in connection with this formula. We have noted Deissmann’s affirmation that “in the name” “sets up a relation of belonging.” So also Billerbeck affirmed that baptism in the name of the triune God “grounds a relation between God and the baptized.” Who is viewed as the prime mover in establishing this relationship? In the application to baptism both God and humans are involved. The baptizer invokes the name of Jesus over the baptized, and the baptized calls on the name of the Lord as he or she is baptized (for the former cf. Jas 2:7; for the latter cf. Acts 22:16). It is likely that Paul has both aspects in mind in Romans 10:9. It is universally acknowledged that “Jesus is Lord” is the primitive confession of faith in Christ that was made at baptism; from it all later creeds of the church were developed (see Creed; Worship). But the salvation granted on confession of faith is in virtue of God’s once-for-all action in Christ’s death and resurrection, and his action in the lives of those who believe. The priority of God’s action applies in the reconciliation of the world in Christ and in the reconciliation of each believer who accepts it (2 Cor 5:18–21). In baptism, therefore, the Lord appropriates the baptized for his own and the baptized owns Jesus as Lord and submits to his lordship.
1.2. Symbolism and Reality. It is important to observe that Paul never refers to baptism as a purely external rite, whether as a “mere symbol” for confessing faith in Christ, or as a rite that effects what it symbolizes. Admittedly for Paul, as for the whole early church, the symbolic nature of baptism is plain. Most obviously it symbolizes cleansing from sin (cf. Acts 22:16). And this meaning seems clear in a pericope that is best understood as reflecting early Christian baptismal practice and its significance for the congregation (Eph 5:25–27: see commentaries, esp. Lincoln ad loc.). The actions of stripping off clothes for baptism and putting on clothes after baptism affords a symbol of “putting off” the old life without Christ and “putting on” the new life in Christ, and even putting on Christ himself (Gal 3:27; Col 3:9, 12). The sinking of the baptized beneath water and rising out of it vividly symbolizes sharing in Christ’s burial and resurrection (Rom 6:3–4; the baptismal actions lie in the background of Eph 5:14, often regarded by interpreters as a baptismal chant addressed to the newly initiated believers: see commentaries). None of these spiritual realities, however, can be said to happen by the mere performance of appropriate symbolic actions; they depend on God’s once-for-all acts in Christ, according to the gospel, and on God’s action in believers as they respond to God’s call in the gospel. For that reason Paul’s use of baptismal language (in 1 Cor 10:1–12) speaks to a situation where the readers imagined that sacramental action carried its effective and operative power irrespective of moral choices. Paul insists, on the contrary, that the OT “sacraments” led to judgment on an idolatrous and immoral generation.
With these considerations in mind we turn to examine Paul’s statements in his letters relating to the significance of baptism.
2. Baptism and Christ.
Baptism “in the name of Jesus” is distinguished from all other religious ablutions by virtue of its relation to Christ. Believers are united with Christ in his redemptive actions of death and resurrection, and so pass from the life of the old age to the life of the new (see Dying and Rising).
2.1. Putting on Christ. The relationship between baptism and union with Christ is indicated not only through its administration “in the name of Jesus” but also in Paul’s foundational baptismal utterance, Galatians 3:26–27: “You are all children of God in Christ Jesus through faith, for all you who were baptized to Christ clothed yourself with Christ” (see Adoption, Sonship). The statement is shaped by the discussion in the context as to who the children of Abraham are, for the promise of God that he should inherit the world to come was made to him and his descendants (Rom 4:16). To Jews the answer was plain: they are Abraham’s descendants, and any who would be included with them must receive the sign of the covenant (circumcision) and live in obedience to the Law of Moses. Paul, on the contrary, maintained that the “offspring” of Abraham, for whom the promise was intended, is Christ and all in union with him. Hence the pertinence of Galatians 3:26: “In Christ Jesus you are all God’s children through faith.” They are children not merely of Abraham, but of God. For they are “in Christ,” the unique Son of God. This has come about “through faith” (Gal 3:26), “for all you who were baptized to Christ clothed yourself with Christ” (Gal 3:27).
We have already noticed the symbolism used in this passage. The imagery of stripping off clothes and putting on fresh ones to indicate a transformation of character is frequent in the OT (cf., e.g., Is 52:1; 61:10; Zech 1:1–5). The symbolism was peculiarly apt for Christian baptism in apostolic times, since it normally took place by immersion, and apparently often in nakedness. (That was insisted on in Jewish proselyte baptism; when women were baptized the Rabbis turned their backs on them while the women entered the water to their neck, and the latter were questioned and gave answers; they had to have their hair loose, to ensure that no part of their bodies was untouched by water. This feature reappears in Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition, c. a.d. 215. Cyril of Jerusalem later remarked on the fitness of being baptized in nakedness, as Jesus died on the cross in such a state.)
More important than the symbolism is the reality expressed through it: the baptized “took off” their old life and “put on” Christ, thereby becoming one with him, and so qualified to participate in life in the kingdom of God (see New Nature and Old Nature). The two statements in Galatians 3:26 and 27 are complementary: verse 26 declares that believers are God’s children “through faith,” and verse 27 associates entry into God’s family upon union with Christ, and Christ sharing his sonship with the baptized. It is an example of Paul’s linking faith and baptism in such a way that the theological understanding of faith that turns to the Lord for salvation, and of baptism wherein faith is declared, is one and the same.
2.2. Union with Christ in Death and Resurrection. Because baptism signifies union with Christ, Paul saw it as extending to union with Christ in his redemptive actions, for the Christ who saves is forever the once crucified and now risen redeemer. Such is the message in Paul’s exposition of baptism in Romans 6:1–11 (for a survey of interpretation, see Wedderburn).
First, it should be observed that in this passage Paul was not primarily giving a theological explanation of the nature of baptism, but expounding its meaning for life. He is concerned to rebut the charge that the doctrine of justification by faith logically encourages sin. Accordingly he urged that “people like us who died to sin” could not still live in sin, for “death to sin” is the meaning of our baptism. When we were “baptized to Christ Jesus” we were “baptized to his death” (Rom 6:3, echoing Gal 3:27). That is the consequence of becoming one with the Lord who died and rose for the conquest of sin and death. Moreover, “we were buried with him by baptism to death.” Note that Paul did not write, “we were buried like him,” but “buried with him.” That is, we were laid with him in his grave in Jerusalem! So, too, the death he died on the cross was our death also. This entails a different way of looking at Christ’s death for the world from what may be expected.
When we read in Romans 5 that Christ died for us while we were still sinners, we think of Christ as our substitute. Here, however, Paul speaks of Christ as our representative. If he died on the cross as our representative, and that death was accepted, then it was accepted as our death, so that when he died, we died (see Death of Christ). He was an effective representative! Taking that a step further, united with him in his death for sin, we rise in him to live the resurrection life. Through the faith expressed in baptism, what was done outside of us (extra nos) becomes effective faith within us. In Christ we are the reconciled children of God.
But a further element is involved in this exposition of baptism. The last two sentences echo Paul’s statement of the gospel in 2 Corinthians 5:14–15: “We are convinced that one died for all, therefore all died. And he died for all that those who live might live … for him who died and was raised for them.” “Those who live” are those who, having learned that Christ died as their representative, thankfully trust him, confess their faith in baptism, share his resurrection life and in gratitude have begun life in Christ to his glory.
This aspect of baptism—the end of life without God and the beginning of life with God—is explicitly stated in Colossians 2:11–12. Like the Galatians passage, this rebuts an attempt to persuade Christians to submit to circumcision, but adopts a different approach by emphasizing the needlessness of the rite of Israel, for in Christ they have suffered a more drastic circumcision: “In him (Christ) you were circumcised with a spiritual circumcision, by putting off the body of flesh in the circumcision of Christ.” Apparently, Paul depicts Christ’s death as a circumcision; cutting off the foreskin of the male sex organ is replaced by the tearing of Christ’s whole fleshly body, hence his death. In him that happened to us; it happened in baptism understood as our turning-to-God-in-faith. “When you were buried with him in baptism, you were also raised with him.” This is not so much an advance on Paul’s teaching in Romans 6 as a clarification of what he wrote there. The person who hears the gospel, heeds it, believes it and confesses it in baptism, ends the old life apart from God and begins life in the risen Christ. Colossians 2:12 makes the point: “buried with him in baptism … you were raised with him through faith in the power of God who raised him from the dead.” Any effectiveness in baptism is due to the power of God operative “through faith.” Clearly Paul is talking about conversion-baptism, a baptism that embodies both the gospel and the convert’s response to it. Some find Paul’s use of “sealing” (in 2 Cor 1:21) to include the latter element, as God certifies his acceptance of the human response.
Yet a third feature is inherent in baptism as Paul expounds it in Romans 6. The baptism which sets forth believers’ identification with Christ in his death and resurrection, and the end of life apart from God for life in Christ, calls for renunciation of life unfit for the new age. Romans 6:4, when stripped of its parenthetical clause in the middle, reads, “We were buried with him by baptism for death … that we might walk in newness of life.” Paul thereby gives the reason the Christian can never willfully “sin that grace may abound;” in Christ’s death believers died to sin, in Christ’s resurrection they rose, henceforth to live for God who redeemed them in Christ (so 2 Cor 5:15).
3. Baptism and the Spirit.
A major consequence of the rise of modern Pentecostalism and the charismatic movement is to provoke the question of the relation of the rite of baptism to baptism in the Spirit (see Holy Spirit). Most members of those groups view the baptism of the Spirit as radically distinct from baptism in water, and it is the former on which emphasis is laid. The viewpoint is characteristic of the two groups, though for different reasons (see Dunn for discussion in detail); the question is whether Paul made such a distinction.
W. H. Griffith Thomas voiced a doubt commonly heard today: “How can that which is physical effect that which is spiritual?” (Griffith Thomas, 379). From that standpoint some interpreters hold that passages such as Romans 6:1–11; Galatians 3:26–27; Colossians 2:11–12; Ephesians 5:26; and Titus 3:5–7, which all conjoin baptism with “spiritual effects,” refer to Spirit baptism, not water baptism, thereby eliminating most of Paul’s references to baptism. But such questioning of the relationship between the physical and the spiritual logically draws into question the Pauline emphasis on the incarnation (e.g., Rom 8:3) and the physical death of Christ which results in “the redemption of the body” (Rom 8:23). The corollary of this argument for baptism as solely the work of the Spirit without baptism in water is to make Pauline Christians too ethereal and unrelated to early Christian practices (cf., e.g., Acts 18:8; 1 Pet 3:21).
Galatians 3:26–27 associates baptism with union with Christ. Now Paul makes it clear that people can be “in Christ” only through the Holy Spirit. That is plainly stated in Romans 8:9–11, and is assumed in 2 Corinthians 3:17–18. Clearly Paul associates baptism and unity with Christ and all that follows from it on the basis that for him baptism in water and baptism in the Spirit are ideally one, just as conversion and baptism are part of one process. Accordingly, the sole reference in Paul’s letters to baptism in the Spirit (1 Cor 12:13) must surely relate to baptism in the sense that Paul elsewhere uses it: “In one Spirit we were all baptized to one body,” and in that body all racial and social barriers are done away. Precisely that is stated in Galatians 3:26–28 in relation to baptism.
The latter half of 1 Corinthians 12:13 is generally rendered, “We were all made to drink of one Spirit” (see Cuming for a reference to baptism in this text). In all likelihood that has in mind the outpouring of the Spirit in the last times (Is 32:15; Joel 2:28–29) and could be paraphrased, “we all received the floodtide of the Spirit” (i.e., we were saturated with the Spirit). That this experience belongs to the beginning of the Christian life hints at an important consideration: conversion is not only the result of human decision, but is enabled by the Spirit. He is not only the fruit of conversion-baptism; he is the real baptizer, the agent who makes baptism what it was meant to be: entry upon life in Christ.
A similar line of understanding is in Titus 3:5, which the NRSV renders “He saved us, not because of any works of righteousness that we had done, but according to his mercy, through the water of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit.” The last clause may be rendered, “He saved us … through the washing characterized by the new beginning and renewal which the Holy Spirit effects.” The text continues, “This Spirit he poured out on us richly,” which is an echo of Joel 2:28.
4. Baptism and the Church.
From the beginning baptism in the NT communities was understood as a corporate as well as an individual rite. We have already seen that for Paul this understanding of baptism was axiomatic, and at Corinth it is appealed to as a protest against individualism taken to extreme. To be baptized to Christ was to be baptized to the body of Christ (1 Cor 12:13; see Body of Christ). In Galatians 3:26–27 Paul’s thought immediately passes from that of “putting on” Christ in baptism to that of the body in which all distinctions among human beings lose their power. The same connection is apparent in the appeal for behavior worthy of baptism in Colossians 3:5–15, in which the baptismal imagery found in Galatians 3:27 is extensively applied: “You stripped off the old nature and put on the new, which is being renewed … according to the image of its creator [i.e., Christ as the perfect image of God], where there is no longer Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave and free, but Christ is all and in all.”
The question not infrequently has been raised, “To which church does baptism give entry: to the local or universal church, to the visible or the invisible church?” The question is essentially modern. It would have been inconceivable to Paul. The church is the visible manifestation of the people of God, whose life is “hidden with Christ in God” (Col 3:3). Baptism is a visible act with a spiritual meaning; it is therefore well adapted to be the means of entry into a visible community of God’s people and the body which transcends any one place or time. How to give satisfactory expression to the outward and inward elements, alike of baptism and of the church, is a perpetual pastoral problem; that dilemma, however, challenges believers to reform themselves according to the Word of God rather than to accept laxity of doctrine and practice.
5. Baptism and Christian Ethics.
It is surely significant that the longest exposition of baptism in Paul’s letters is given for an ethical purpose (see Ethics). Romans 6:1–14 is filled with appeals for life consonant with participation in the redemption of Christ that lies at the heart of baptism:
How can we who died to sin go on living in it? … We were buried with him by baptism to death … that we might walk in newness of life. … Our old self was crucified with him that we might no longer be enslaved to sin. … You also must consider yourselves dead to sin and alive to God in Christ Jesus.
This appeal is most extensively developed in Colossians 2:20–3:13. Therein the fact that the believer died and rose in Christ is not only a motive for Christ-like living, but a basis to work out the baptismal pattern of dying to sin and rising to righteousness:
Put to death what is earthly in you. … Put off all such things … seeing that you stripped off the old nature with its practices and put on the new nature. … Put on therefore compassion. … Above all put on love.
This led G. Bornkamm to affirm that in Paul’s writings, “baptism is the appropriation of the new life, and the new life is the appropriation of baptism” (Bornkamm 1958, 50). To give substance to this principle the primitive church construed a system of ethics which is reflected in the practical sections of many of the NT letters, not least in Paul’s writings. To this tradition Paul refers at times, notably Romans 6:17: “Thanks be to God that although you once were slaves of sin, you became obedient from the heart to the pattern of teaching to which you were entrusted” (see Creeds). From this it is clear that the believers addressed were instructed in the elements of Christian living that follow from baptism (see further 1 Thess 4:1–7; 2 Thess 3:6, 11–13).
6. Baptism and the Kingdom of God.
The baptism of John the Baptist was essentially an eschatological rite, anticipating the coming of the Messiah, the Day of the Lord and the kingdom of God. The baptism of Jesus at his hands saw the inauguration of that kingdom: the heavens were opened, the Spirit descended on Jesus, the voice of God came to him, affirming him as the messianic Servant of the Lord (with Mk 1:11; cf. Ps 2:7; Is 42:1), and his service for the kingdom reached its climax in his death and resurrection. Paul understood Christian baptism as participation in that inauguration of the kingdom of God through Jesus. The baptized shares in the death and resurrection of the Lord that initiated the new age, hence the believer lives in it now. The same truth is expressed by Paul in terms of new creation; when Jesus rose from death the new creation came into existence in him, hence Paul could say, “If anyone is in Christ there is a new creation: everything old has passed away; see, everything has become new!” (2 Cor 5:17). Christian existence is nothing less than life in the new creation.
Because this is so, the Christian life is a pilgrimage to the consummated kingdom, into which the believer enters by ultimate resurrection. So Paul states in Romans 6:5: “If we have been united with the form of his death, we shall be united with the form of his resurrection”—logically now, and finally in the day of his coming in this kingdom. That is expounded more fully in 1 Corinthians 15, the heart of which is in 1 Corinthians 15:20–28. Interestingly, this means that baptism, like the Lord’s Supper, sets the believer between the two poles of redemption—the death and resurrection of Jesus and the future coming of Jesus; standing in between them the Christian looks back to salvation accomplished, forward to salvation to be consummated, and to the risen Lord in the present for grace to persist to the goal and live worthily of such infinite love.
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BAGD W. Bauer, W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich and F. W. Danker, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
κτλ̠etc. (Greek)
Int Interpretation
NTS New Testament Studies
FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments
WBC Word Biblical Commentary
WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament
NovT Novum Testamentum
Beasley-Murray, George R., Ph.D. Senior Professor of New Testament Interpretation, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky, USA: Baptism; Dying and Rising with Christ.
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